Ethology of fear: responses, actions, universes

Abstract

In this paper we describe the motivational-behavioural system of fear from an ethological point of view. Fear behaviour is primarily considered reactive, that is, dependent upon past events, so its manifestations should be classified as responses rather than actions. The behavioural outcomes of fear which are closer to actions are those involved in defensive aggression and in deceit targeted at predators or rivals. We also analyse the perceptual worlds around fear and relate them to two important polarities of animal adaptation, namely fear-security and fear-aggression. Both animal expressive patterns and intentional actions often reflect the conflict between these opposites, and decisions in the face of danger are based on a balance between the cost and benefit and the adaptive value of behaviour in its ecological context.