Galleria mellonella as a simple yet reliable in vivo model for nanotoxicology: Techniques and applications

Abstract

Nanomaterials are a rapidly advancing tool with applications across various scientific fields. However, their interactions with living organisms have raised numerous safety concerns, making it crucial to develop reliable models to predict and evaluate associated toxicity effects. Traditional in vitro assays fail to mimic the true physiological responses of living organisms to nanomaterials, whereas murine and other in vivo models are time-consuming, costly, and ethically controversial. The greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella, has emerged as a promising in vivo model for nanotoxicology, serving as an effective bridge between in vitro and in vivo mammalian testing. This model combines simplicity and ethical viability with a human-conserved innate immune system, making it ideal for immunotoxicity testing. While it cannot fully replace more complex animal models, G. mellonella represents a valuable alternative for early-stage nanotoxicology screening and deserves greater recognition and integration into toxicological research. In this review, we examine all the methodologies and applications of G. mellonella in nanotoxicological studies, highlighting its potential as a reliable and ethical model for assessing nanomaterial safety.