Dimensionally and morphologically driven effects of nanomaterials on the enhancement of electroanalytical sensing performance: A review

Abstract

Electrochemical sensors are widely used in environmental monitoring, clinical diagnostics, and food-safety assessment because they can support rapid analysis, relatively low-cost instrumentation, and sensitive detection when sensing interfaces and recognition strategies are appropriately designed. Bare electrodes, however,may show slow electron-transfer kinetics, limited electroactive area, or insufficient stability. Incorporating nanomaterials can address these constraints by modifying charge transport, active-site accessibility, analyte accumulation, and interfacial chemistry. This review uses dimensionality and morphology as operational descriptorsto examine how zero-dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), and threedimensional(3D)/hierarchical architectures influence structure-dependent electroanalytical behavior. 0D materials provide discrete catalytic or redox-active sites and, in selected nanoclusters and quantum dots, size dependent electronic effects. 1D architectures can support directional or percolated charge transport, subject to orientation, connectivity, junction resistance, and electrode adhesion. 2D materials provide accessible interfaces, exposed basal, edge, or defect sites, and tunable surface chemistry, including selected ultrathin nanosheetsand nanofilms. 3D/hierarchical architectures regulate analyte-accessible reaction volumes and spatially partition functions: hollow and nanoporous structures organize internal transport, core–shell structures provide radial partitioning, and Janus interfaces provide lateral or anisotropic partitioning.