Green cities and the risk for vector-borne disease transmission for humans and animals: a scoping review

like plants or water bodies, to mitigate climate change impacts and enhance human well-being. However, urban

green infrastructures (UGIs) can influence the distribution of disease vectors, potentially affecting vectorborne

diseases (VBDs). UGIs may provide new suitable environments for urban vectors, while also creating

opportunities to mitigate VBD risks through predation, competition, and dilution effects. This article examined

the relationships between UGIs, vectors, and associated pathogens, impacting both human and animal health,

highlighting knowledge gaps and identifying research priorities to support VBD risk mitigation measures and

to guide smart urban planning and design. A systematic literature search was conducted following PRISMA

guidelines in three databases (Pubmed, Scopus, Web of Science). Selected articles involved (i) any aspect of

a urban vector system, (ii) in UGIs, and (iii) statistical analysis of the effects of UGIs on VBD risk. Methods

employed to characterize UGIs and VBDs were described and the identified impacts were summarized by vector

group. Among the 98 articles reviewed, most addressed mosquito-pathogen systems (66), tick-pathogen

systems (29), and few other vector-borne pathogen systems (3), with studies often confined to a single city or

several cities within the same country and focused on one vector group. Urban vegetation generally appeared

to heighten the risk of tick-borne diseases. In contrast, the influence of UGIs on the risk of mosquito-borne diseases

varied depending on the vector system and on the environmental and climatic context. The diversity of

indicators used to assess UGIs and VBD risks may affect the observed impact on VBD risk. Given the increasing

popularity of urban greening, it is crucial to investigate its potential implications for public health, and thereby

urban planning decisions. However, the lack of standardized protocols complicates the accurate assessment of

the effects of UGIs on the risk for VBD emergence and transmission and consequently, on potential mitigation.